Lunar mysteries of a Fortean flavour can be placed into several categories. First, unusual appearances of the Moon's surface range from simulacra as basic as the "Man-in-the-Moon" to enhanced spaceprobe photographs of the Moon's surface that seem to indicate artificial constructions. There are transient lunar phenomena (TLP ) - isolated flashes, coloured glows or obscurations of small areas of the Moon's surface. TLP have been telescopically observed for centuries [1]. While it can be said that TLP remain enigmatic, this must in some part result from our remoteness from these events and the fact that for decades the Moon has been the neglected "Cinderella" of the astronomical world. Finally, there are claims that (providing of course they weren't faked) the nine Apollo missions to the Moon (1968-72) were all under close surveillance by aliens. It is alleged that the astronauts communicated their UFO observations using code words during broadcasts to mission control that were censored. [2]
In ancient Greece are found the first attempts to place the Moon's phenomena into a scientific framework. Anaxagoras (500-428 BC) was the first to claim that the Moon was a world in its own right - a globe like the Earth, whose surface clearly displayed continents and oceans. According to the philosopher Diogenes (412-323 BC), Anaxagoras taught that the Moon was most likely inhabited with an intelligent race of Lunarians. When Anaxagoras went on to assert that the Moon might be as big as the Greek island of Peloponnisos (just 200 km across) he was ridiculed for such wild exaggeration. Some philosophers concluded that because the lunar day was 14 times longer than the Earth day, the Moon's inhabitants must correspondingly be 14 times the size of humans. There was by no means a lunar consensus among ancient Greek philosophers. Many of the Pythagorean school spurned the notion that the Moon was Earth- like, maintaining instead that the Moon was a perfect crystalline disk whose highly reflective surface simply mirrored the features of the Earth below. This view was also held by Aristotle (384-322 BC) who should have known better than to lend support to such a plainly absurd theory.
Belief that the Moon was inhabited lasted right through to the renaissance and beyond. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) speculated that the Moon was Earth-like, with the bright areas representing vast seas within which resided the darker island continents. With the arrival of the telescope in the early 17th century came a swift end to fanciful notions that the Moon's seas were composed of water. Lunar maria were obviously vast flat plains and on a global scale our satellite appeared changeless and clearly devoid of an Earth-like atmosphere. No clouds ever appeared in lunar skies, no wind ever whipped up the Moondust and no rain ever refreshed the arid lunar landscape. Lunar continental areas appeared incredibly mountainous, pitted all over with deep craters and gorges. Richard Proctor, a prolific late 19th century astronomy writer, lamented:
"Early telescopic observations of the Moon were conducted with the confident expectation that the Moon would be found to be an inhabited world, and that much would soon be learned of the appearance and manners of the Lunarians. With each increase of telescopic power....men began to look on the examination as nearly hopeless." [3]
In the hands of certain eagle-eyed astronomers keen to make new discoveries, the telescope was a powerful tool through which the Moon could be examined in minute detail. For reasons best known to himself, the astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822) was keen to promote the idea that all the worlds of the solar system were inhabited. Indeed, according to Herschel even the Sun was an abode of life, for beneath the blazing solar furnace he confidently said "we need not hesitate to admit that the Sun is richly stored with inhabitants." As for the Moon, Herschel claimed that the presence of life there was "an absolute certainty." In a letter to Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, Herschel wrote:
"....finding that in [the Moon] there is a provision of light and heat; also in appearance, a soil proper for habitation fully as good as ours, if not perhaps better - who can say that it is not extremely probable, nay beyond doubt, that there must be inhabitants on the Moon of some kind or other?" [4]
To say the least, Maskelyne wasn't impressed with the respected astronomer's arguments. Sure, Herschel may have been the greatest visual astronomer in history and discoverer of Uranus in 1781, but Maskelyne wasn't going to allow that to stand in the way of common scientific sense. In a very early example of official censorship of the "truth" about aliens on the Moon, the Astronomer Royal deleted an offending paragraph in one of Herschel's papers before allowing it to be published in the annals of the Royal Society.
Astronomers in Germany were every bit as imaginative as their English counterparts. Johann Schröter (1745-1816), a respected selenographer (Moon-mapper) believed that he had observed changes on the lunar surface. According to Schröter, the Moon retained a substantial atmosphere and in all probability intelligent life existed there. Franz von Gruithuisen (1774- 1852) had similar ideas, but went one step further by writing a book that related his discovery of alien lunar structures comprising a veritable alien city in the Moon's Sinus Medii (Central Bay) - a place where Schröter had once observed mists and vapours that he thought emanated from lunar factories. Alas, Gruithuisen's "great artificial works on the Moon, erected by the Lunarians" turned out to be nothing more than chance alignments of craters and other topographic features. Gruithuisen's contemporaries lost no time in slamming him for writing such nonsense.
French astronomer Étienne Trouvelot (1827-95) observed features in the lunar darkness just past the sunset or sunrise terminator that appeared to be the tops of walls catching sunlight. For example, on 20 February 1877 he discerned a faint line of light running across the southern part of the crater Eudoxus that did not correspond to any known topographic formation [5]. Trouvelot called these anomalous features "Murs Enigmatiques" (Enigmatic Walls). More than a century later the American promoter of space mysteries Richard Hoagland claimed that this kind of feature was clearly visible in many lunar spaceprobe photographs. It's no wonder that Trouvelot couldn't see these objects when directly illuminated, for they were composed of a transparent crystalline substance - giant glass shards of alien construction that project several kilometres above the lunar surface.
Despite mainstream science's eagerness to promote the sensible idea of a sterile, changeless Moon, there remained a significant number of stubborn astronomers who refused to accept that our satellite was just an interesting lump of heavily cratered rock. Dr Thomas Dick, a 19th century Scottish astronomy writer whose popularity then compares with today's Patrick Moore, maintained that the Moon was inhabited and prophesied that telescopes would eventually become powerful enough to discern the Lunarians' buildings. The great Moon hoax perpetrated by the journalist Richard Adams Locke in the pages of the New York Sun in 1835 [6] took advantage of such an undercurrent of speculation. Thousands of NY Sun readers were fooled into believing that John Herschel (William's son) had discovered fabulous lunar cities populated by winged humanoids with the aid of a giant telescope of revolutionary design.
Knowing full well that the Moon couldn't possess more than 1/5000 the atmospheric density of the Earth, Harvard astronomer William Henry Pickering (1858-1938) put forward the theory that some of the Moon's dusky spots were vast tracts of vegetation, swarms of insects or herds of animal life. Between 1919 and 1924 Pickering closely studied the crater Eratosthenes and noted that some dark patches appeared to change slightly over the course of the lunar month. He suggested that the patches were composed of vast swarms of insects. In a paper published in 1924 he stated that these patches might alternatively be seals travelling to and from their breeding grounds.
Regarding the Moon "as a sort of cosmic Clapham Junction", Harold Wilkins in his "Flying Saucers on the Moon" [7] was one of the first to establish a Moon-UFO connection, though the book's title is a misnomer since there are only a few references to matters lunar. Wilkins speculated that the first man on the Moon will land before 2001, and the intrepid lunar explorer may well be amazed by the sight of "massive portals" that lead to "great sublunar tunnels" in which "stand beings of other unknown worlds in space." These lunar beings, forewarned of the humans' arrival by terrestrial radio broadcasts, will be ready and waiting - not to welcome their space neighbours, but to blast them with their ray-cannon.
Surveyor 1 soft-landed on the flat plains of Oceanus Procellarum in June 1966. No massive portals were seen in more than 11,00 images of the surrounding Moonscape. But one of the weirdest images to have been returned from the lunar surface was a 45 cm boulder which resembled the fossilised head of a dinosaur - complete with eye socket, nose and mouth. Surveyor 1's photograph still circulates as undeniable evidence of past lunar life, even though scientists have stressed that this "Lunasaurus Improbabilis" is nothing more than an unusually shaped lump of basalt.
NASA's Lunar Orbiter 2 began orbiting the Moon in November 1966, continuing the space agency's detailed lunar mapping programme. From a height of just 20 km the probe secured 184 splendid close-up photographs of the Moon. It was a small, highly magnified section of one particular shot near the western shore of the Sea of Tranquillity that enthralled hunters of the unusual. It was claimed that no less than eight "megalithic spires" had been imaged - the largest between 15 to 21 metres tall - along with a remarkable rectangular depression in the lunar surface [8]. Dr William Blair of the Boeing Institute of Biotechnology postulated that these spires were geometrically positioned, and that the depression "persuades one to think it is like an excavation whose walls have been eroded or fallen inwards." [9]
While supporting the idea that the so-called "Blair Cuspids" are evidence of alien structures on the Moon, writer Peter Kolosimo actually arrived at what many would consider a more plausible answer to many of the mysteries of the Moon when he says "It is clear that with the help of a little dose of fantasy one can see a bit of everything in these fascinating pictures when exposed to the tricks of light and shade." [10]
When illuminated from a very low angle, the Moon's surface shows the most minor topographic detail to startling effect. The shallowest ditch can appear to become an impressive valley, and a gently rolling hill can transform into a mighty mountain peak of Matterhorn proportions. Knowing the height of the Sun at the time the photograph was taken and the length of the shadows produced, a simple measurement of the dimensions of the "Blair Cuspids" allows us to conclude that they are somewhat less awesome than we have been led to believe [11]. As for the apparent geometry of this small group of rounded hills, it can easily be demonstrated that from any random distribution of points a geometrical pattern will emerge. Moreover, it is surprising that nobody has suggested that the hills central to the grouping in question appear to be laid out in the same pattern as the pyramids at Gizah - or, if you like, a reflection of the star grouping in Orion's belt!
There is an abundance of telescopic lunar simulacra, and lunar observers, familiar with tricks of light and shade, can nevertheless be struck by the odd appearance of the lunar surface arising at certain angles of illumination. For example, I never fail to be impressed by the so- called Straight Wall (Rupes Recta) in the Moon's Sea of Clouds (Mare Nubium). The "wall" is a 110 km long linear fault whose southern tip joins the appropriately named "Stag's Horn Mountains". Near first quarter phase the fault scarp casts a striking broad black shadow across the plain. After last quarter phase, lit by an evening Sun, the bright line of the fault and the mountains appears like a mighty sword. The Straight Wall is so artificial looking that it used to be called the "Railway Line". According to author Don Wilson, a "great crack" is present on the Moon's far-side almost directly opposite the Straight Wall and may therefore be connected to it in some way [12]. Wilson exaggerates - the "crack" is actually the Schrödinger Valley, a series of secondary impact craters some 310 km in length, in a location near the southeastern edge of the Moon - nowhere near opposite the Straight Wall!
Observing through his 100 mm refractor in the early hours of 29 July 1953, John O'Neill, then science editor of the New York Herald Tribune, claimed to have seen evidence of "a gigantic natural bridge having the amazing span of about twelve miles [19 km] from pediment to pediment." [13] Thus started one of the most well known episodes of the alleged discovery of fantastic lunar structures. Percy Wilkins, a respected British amateur astronomer and Director of the BAA Lunar Section (1946-56) had been contacted by O'Neill about the observation. On 26 August, the sceptical Wilkins went to the eyepiece of his 375 mm reflecting telescope and observed Mare Crisium with high hopes to debunk the "gigantic bridge" story. Instead, Wilkins was astounded to see what appeared to be "a bridge with sunlight streaming under it, and the shadow of the arch cast on the surface of the plain." [14]
O'Neill never read Wilkins' letter of congratulations - he died suddenly before receiving it. On 17 June 1954 Wilkins again confirmed the appearance of the Crisium bridge using the giant 1.5 metre reflector at California's Mount Wilson Observatory. But by now, many other amateur astronomers on both sides of the Atlantic had a different opinion as to the nature of these lunar details, having observed for themselves the effect of a low Sun on the fine topographic detail in this small region of the Moon. Wilkins became embroiled in further controversy when he recorded an interview with the BBC which included subjects from astronomy to those strange new flying saucers, letting slip some unwise speculation about the artificial nature of the (non-existent) Crisium bridge. In a somewhat acrimonious meeting of the BAA in November 1954, Wilkins was ridiculed for his involvement with the lunar bridge affair and resigned from the association soon after.
The "Moon-Mars Connection", a video of a 1993 lecture by Richard Hoagland, claims to be a non-fictional account of amazing new discoveries of extraterrestrial lunar artifacts. The images shown are largely based upon grossly enhanced images obtained by various lunar spaceprobes. Gigantic artificial glass shards, many kilometres high can supposedly be seen in photographs of the region of Sinus Medii - the same place that Gruithuisen saw his lunar city. In addition there is a triangular "message to humanity" on the floor of the crater Triesnecker at the apparent centre of the near-side lunar disc. If this feature is studied telescopically it will be found that the floor of Triesnecker, like so many other craters, appears to have angular borders, but that the illusion of a perfect triangle sadly breaks down on close examination.
Early this year, German geologist and science writer Dr Johannes Fiebag announced the "discovery of an artificial-looking object" within a crater on the Moon's far-side. While browsing through NASA photos taken during the Apollo 16 mission. The feature in question is said to be "undeniably strange" [15]. Fiebag notes:
"There are two unusual objects of unknown origin in the Guyot crater on the lunar far-side: a giant triangular shape and a smaller cylindrical one....It cannot be excluded that we really have
detected some ETAs (extraterrestrial artifacts) on the Moon....at the centre of the image, right in the middle of the crater rim, a prominent and surprisingly clear triangular structure....is erected high above the surface....it is very likely that we have the first real evidence for an extraterrestrial artifact on the Moon....imagine what this will mean for all of us."
The so-called ETAs in this formation (conveniently on the side of the Moon we cannot view) are extremely unconvincing - even the most enthusiastic believer in alien lunar constructions would hesitate before endorsing such "proof". I don't know what Dr Fiebag's qualifications are, but he is obviously gifted with an incredibly vivid imagination! What I see (given that I only have mere A-level in geology) is an oblong depression in a crater wall, below which may be another depression with a dark (?lava-stained) floor leading to a slumped inner terrace. Why Fiebag has rounded on this feature is not clear, but I could easily point out dozens of far more convincing "alien" constructions on Apollo photographs.
Speculation about apparently artificial looking objects on the Moon is easy - especially if the research amounts to nothing more than thumbing through NASA's photographic archives and identifying features that look odd in some way. The Moon has a surface area equal to North and South America combined - it shouldn't surprise anyone that natural processes have given rise to an angular looking crater here or a somewhat pyramidal hillock there.
Footnotes:
[1] See my article Light Side of the Moon in Fortean Times 105: December 1997, for an entertaining overview of TLP.
[2] Margaret Sachs, The UFO Encyclopedia. Corgi: 1981. Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins (Apollo 11) both think that there may be intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, though all three deny that the Apollo 11 spacecraft were scrutinised by UFOs. Apollo 14 Moon-walker Edgar Mitchell stated there is "strong evidence for UFOs", and if aliens exist they may originate from another dimension. Veteran astronaut John Young, Apollo 16 Moon-walker, says "odds are that UFOs exist", but denies that he saw anything which could be interpreted as a manifestation of ET. In 1973, Eugene Cernan (Apollo 17) the last Moonwalker, stated that it was his belief that UFOs might come from another civilisation. Harrison Schmitt, who accompanied Cernan on the Moon, has mentioned the possibility that aliens may have visited Earth in ancient times and speculated that in the centuries to come humanity may conduct a similar programme of exploration. Schmitt does not believe that there is any concrete proof of extra-terrestrial communication either now or in the past.
[3] Richard Proctor, The Moon. Longmans, Green & Co: 1886.
[4] Patrick Moore, Guide to the Moon. Lutterworth Press: 1976.
[5] Fred Price, The Moon Observer's Handbook. Cambridge University Press: 1988.
[6] See Brian Regal's article When Beavers Roamed the Moon in Fortean Times 109: April 1998, for a lively account of Locke's Moon hoax.
[7] H J Wilkins, Flying Saucers on the Moon. Peter Owen, London: 1954.
[8] Margaret Sachs, The UFO Encyclopedia. Corgi: 1981.
[9] Don Wilson, Our Mysterious Spaceship Moon. Sphere: 1976. Wilson also wrote Secrets of Our Spaceship Moon. Sphere: 1980.
[10] Peter Kolosimo, Not of This World. Sphere: 1971.
[11] Galileo used geometric principles nearly 400 years ago to deduce the heights of the Moon's mountains.
[12] Don Wilson, Our Mysterious Spaceship Moon. Sphere: 1976.
[13] Thomas Dobbin & Richard Baum, O'Neill's Bridge Remembered. Sky and Telescope: January 1998.
[14] Ibid.
[15] The image in question can be seen on NASA's website at: http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/images/pao/AS16/10075825.jpg, and an enhancement of the same image can be viewed at: http://www.sightings.com